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A group of animals whose organization is only slightly diversified can hardly compete with a group whose structure is more fully diversified. For example, it may be doubted whether the Australian marsupials, which are divided into groups which differ little from one another and, as Mr. Waterhouse and others have remarked, poorly represent our carnivorous, ruminant, and rodent mammals, could succeed compete with these well-spoken commands. From the preceding dialogue, which must have been much more elaborate, we could presumably assume that the more diverse the modified offspring of a given species are, the more successful they will be the more diverse their structure is, and thereby they are able to invade places occupied by different beings. Now let's see how this principle of beautiful utility arising from divergence of character mixed with the rules of natural choice and extinction will tend to work. In a confined or isolated space, which is not much ampere, the conditions of life, organic and inorganic, are on the whole kept general; The way in which natural selection can modify all types of animals throughout their space under any severe conditions.

• So, in my view, the natural system is genealogical in arrangement, like a family tree; but the degree of change which the various groups have undergone must be expressed by dividing them into various so-called genera, subfamilies, families, sections, orders, and classes.
• I have tried to show that the life of every species depends more necessarily on the presence of other natural forms already defined than on climate; and therefore that the actually prevailing living conditions do not disappear quite imperceptibly, such as heat or humidity.
• But we have little evidence on the subject, in fact the evidence tends to point in the other direction; Because it is well known that breeders of cattle, horses and various fictional animals can say with certainty what virtues or form it will ultimately have only some time after the birth of the animal.
• Once a group is completely gone, it doesn't reappear; because the bond of generation is broken.
• I think this must be admitted when we find that there are few domesticated breeds, either among animals or plants, which have not been classified by some competent judges as mere varieties, and by other competent judges as descendants of originally distinct species.

And I believe it will generally turn out to be true that wherever many closely related or representative species are found in two regions that are always so far apart, some identical species are also found, which shows under the assumption that at an earlier point in time there was mutual communication or migration between the two regions. And wherever there are many closely related species,Why is my puff bar flashing when I just received it?Many forms will be found, which some naturalists class as distinct species, and others as varieties; These doubtful shapes show us the steps in the editing process. It is my theory that this association is merely heredity, the sole cause of which, as far as we know for certain, produces organisms wholly similar, or, as we see in the case of varieties, almost alike.

When methodically selecting a human, a breeder chooses a specific goal, and free crossing will completely stop his work. But when many people, with no intention of changing the breed, have an almost common standard of perfection, and all strive to obtain and breed from the best animals, this unconscious selection process results in certainty despite extensive selection , but slowly, many improvements and modifications amount of crossings with lower animals. So it will be in nature; for within a narrow space, where a place in its politics is not so perfectly occupied as it might be, natural selection will always tend to preserve all individuals varying in the right direction, though in varying degrees, in order to to better fill in the unoccupied space. [newline]But if the room is huge, its different districts will almost certainly offer different living conditions; and then when natural selection changes and improves a species in the various districts, interbreeding with other individuals of the same species will occur within the limits of each. And in this case the effects of interbreeding can hardly be offset by natural selection, which always tends to alter all individuals in each district in exactly the same way under each individual's conditions; for in a contiguous area conditions generally develop imperceptibly from one district to another.

Crossbreeding mainly affects animals that mate at every birth, move around a lot and do not reproduce very quickly. Sowhen does cbd tea workin animals of this kind, for example in birds, the varieties will generally be confined to different countries; and I believe this is the case.

The three existing genera a14, q14, p14 will form a small family; b14 and f14 a closely related family or subfamily; and o14,e14,m14, a third family. These three families, together with the many extinct genera on the various lineages diverging from ancestral form A, form an order; for all will have inherited something common from their ancient and common ancestor. According to the principle of the persistent tendency toward divergence of character illustrated earlier in this diagram, the newer a form is, the more generally it differs from its ancient progenitor. We can therefore understand the rule that older fossils differ more from existing forms. However, we must not assume that character differences are a necessary contingency; it depends solely on the progeny of a species thereby being able to occupy many and varied places in nature's economic system. It is therefore quite possible, as we have seen with some Silurian forms, for a species to continue to be slightly modified in relation to its slightly different living conditions and yet retain the same general characteristics over a longer period of time.

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If, in much the same climate, the Eocene inhabitants of one quarter of the world were to compete with the existing inhabitants of the same or another quarter, the Eocene fauna or flora would certainly be defeated and exterminated; as well as a secondary fauna from an Eocene and a Paleozoic fauna from a secondary fauna. I do not doubt that this process of improvement has markedly and meaningfully affected the organization of the youngest and most victorious forms of life compared to the ancient and extinct forms; But I don't see a way to test this progress. Of the remarkable way European productions have spread to New Zealand and taken over places in recent timesCBD and Cbn - What's the Difference?We may believe that if all the animals and plants of Britain had been released to New Zealand, over time a variety of British forms would have become fully naturalized there, and many of the natives would have become extinct. On the other hand, based on what we are currently witnessing in New Zealand and the fact that hardly a single Southern Hemisphere resident has gone feral anywhere in Europe, we can doubt that all New Zealand produce has been released into Britain. Great Britain if considerable numbers of people had been able to conquer the lands now inhabited by our native plants and animals.

But why, when the reproductive system is disturbed, this or that part should vary more or less, we do not know deeply. However, we can faintly see a faint ray of light here and there, and we can be sure that there must be some reason for any slight deviation in structure. Crossbreeding plays a very important role in nature to keep individuals of the same species or variety faithful and uniform in character. In the animals that unite at every birth, it will obviously work much more efficiently; but I have already tried to show that we have reason to believe that interbreeding occurs occasionally in all animals and plants. Even if these occur only at long intervals, I am persuaded that the young thus produced will gain so much vigor and fertility from long-continued self-fertilization that they will have a better chance of surviving and reproducing their kind; and so in the long run the influence of crossings, even at infrequent intervals, will be great.

Thus the degree or value of differences between organic beings, all related in the same degree of blood, has become very different. Yet their genealogical arrangement remains strictly true, not only in the present, but in every subsequent lineage period. All modified offspring of A will have inherited something in common from their common parent, as will all offspring of I; so it will be in each succeeding period with each sub-branch of the descendants. If, on the other hand, one assumes that one of the descendants of A or I has been so altered that he has more or less completely lost track of his lineage, then his places in a natural classification would have been more or less completely lost, as is sometimes the case appears to be the case with existing organisms. All descendants of genus F are said to have changed little in their descending line and yet form only one genus. But this genus, though very isolated, will nevertheless occupy its own intermediate position; for F originally had an intermediate character between A and I, and the various genera descended from these two genera will have inherited their characters to some extent.

There is no doubt that occasional crossbreeding can transform a breed, assisted in the careful selection of individual hybrids that exhibit the desired character. but that there can be a race halfway between two extremely numerous races or species I cannot believe. The offspring of the first cross between two pure breeds are reasonably and sometimes extremely uniform, and everything seems quite simple; But when these hybrids are crossed with one another over several generations, hardly any two of them will be alike, and then the extreme difficulty, or rather utter hopelessness, of the task becomes apparent. Certainly an intermediate breed between two very different breeds could not be obtained without extreme care and long-continued selection; Nor can I find a single case of registration of a permanent race thus formed. The existence of closely related or representative species in any two areas implies, according to the theory of descent with modification, that the same parents formerly inhabited both areas; and we almost invariably find that wherever many closely related species inhabit two areas, there still exist some identical species common to both. Wherever there are many closely related and yet different species, there are also many dubious forms and varieties of the same species. It is a very general rule that the inhabitants of each zone are related to the inhabitants of the nearest source from which the immigrants might have come.

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If we look at the geographical distribution and admit that there have been many migrations from one part of the world to another over the centuries due to previous climatic and geographical changes and the many occasional and unknown ways of dispersal, then we can understand: to the theory of lineage with modification, most major key facts in distribution. We can understand why there should be such a striking parallel in the distribution of organic beings in space and in their geological chronology; for in both cases the beings were connected by the bond of ordinary procreation, and the means of change were the same. We realize the full meaning of the wonderful fact that must have struck every traveler, namely that on the same continent under the most diverse conditionsNow on saleIn heat and cold, in mountains and plains, in deserts and swamps, most of the denizens of each major class are clearly related; for they will generally be descendants of the same ancestors and early settlers.

Let's see how these various facts and conclusions agree with the theory of descent with modification. We may assume that the numbered letters represent genera and the dotted lines diverging from them represent the species of each genus.

In the same plains of La Plata we see the agouti and bizcacha, animals that have almost the same habits as our hares and rabbits and belong to the same order of rodents, but clearly have an American structure. Climbing the high peaks of the Cordilleras, we find an alpine Bizcacha species; If we look into the water, we don't find the beaver or the muskrat, but the coypu and the capybara, rodents of an American species. If we look at the islands off the American coast, they may also differ in their geological structure, their inhabitants are essentially Americans, although they are all odd species. We can look back to times past, as shown in the last chapter, and find American species then predominant in the Americas and seas.

• He can do this methodically, or he can do it unconsciously, keeping the individuals who are most useful to him at the moment, without thinking about changing the race.
• It is certain that it can largely influence the character of a breed, selecting in each succeeding generation individual differences so slight as to be scarcely perceptible to the untrained eye.
• In this case, any slight change that has taken place over the centuries that in some way favored individuals of each species and made them better adapted to their changed conditions would tend to persist; and natural selection would thus have room for improvement work.
• We see how this affects farmers and gardeners when they frequently exchange seeds, tubers, etc. from one soil or climate to another and vice versa.
• Several more experienced ornithologists consider our British black grouse to be only a distinct breed of a Norwegian species, while most place it as a species undoubtedly typical of Britain.

And we have some evidence of variant forms that have suffered greatly from extinction, being represented by very few species in general; and such occurring species are generally very distinct from one another, again indicative of extinction. The genera Ornithorhynchus and Lepidosiren, for example, would not have been less divergent if each had been represented by a dozen species instead of just one; but such a richness of species, as I have found after some investigation, does not usually belong to the divergent genera. I think the only way we can explain this fact is by regarding the divergent forms as failed groups won by more successful competitors, with some members preserved by an unusual confluence of favorable circumstances. Looking at the chart we can see that if many of the extinct forms supposedly incorporated into later formations were discovered at different points in the series, the three existing families on the top line would be less clearly distinguished from each other. For example, if genera a1, a5, a10, f8, m3, m6, m9 were excavated, these three families would be so closely related that they would probably have to be grouped almost into one large family, much like ruminants and pachyderms . Yet whoever objected to calling the extinct genera, thus merging the living genera of three families, mediocre would be right, since they are mediocre, not directly, but only by a long and tortuous path through many very different forms. If many extinct forms were discovered above one of the central horizontal lines or geological formations, e.g. B. above the number VI., but none below this line, then only the two families on the left (e.g. a14 etc. and b14 etc.) should be combined into one family; and the other two families would still remain separated.

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However, as soon as gardeners collected individual plants with somewhat larger, earlier, or better fruits, and raised their seedlings, and in turn collected and raised the best seedlings, those many admirable varieties of strawberry which have been bred over the past thirty or forty years, appeared. Several prominent naturalists have recently published their belief that a large number of putative species in each genus are not true species; but that other species are real, that is, they were created independently.

• This period will seldom be extremely remote, since species very rarely survive more than one geologic period.
• Only in those cases where the modification was relatively recent and extraordinarily large should we find what may be called generative variability still present to a high degree.
• Observant observers are convinced that a humid climate influences hair growth and that horns are related to hair.
• But isolation is likely to be more effective in controlling the immigration of more adapted organisms after physical changes such as climate or land elevation etc. have occurred. and so the old dwellers are left with new places in the natural economy of the country to aspire to, and to accept by changes in their structure and constitution.
• In the same plains of La Plata we see the agouti and bizcacha, animals that have almost the same habits as our hares and rabbits and belong to the same order of rodents, but clearly have an American structure.
• During the transformation of a species' offspring and during the ceaseless struggle of all species to increase their numbers, the more diverse those offspring, the better their chances of succeeding in the struggle for life.

Suppose the letters A through L represent related genera that lived during the Silurian Epoch and that these descended from a species that existed at some unknown earlier date. Species from three of these genera have transmitted modified descendants to date, represented by the fifteen genera on the top horizontal line. Now all these modified descendants of a species are represented as being consanguineous or descended to the same degree; they can metaphorically be called cousins ​​in the same millionth degree; However, they differ greatly and to varying degrees from one another. The forms descended from A, now divided into two or three families, form a different order from those descended from I, also divided into two families. Also, the extant species derived from A cannot be assigned to the same genus as parent A; or that of I, with parent I. However, it can be assumed that the existing genus F14 has undergone only minor changes; and is therefore classified with parent gender F; just as a few surviving organic beings belong to the Silurian genera.

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In the longer term, we could predict that due to the continued and regular enlargement of the larger groups, multitudes of smaller teams will die out entirely, leaving no altered offspring; and consequently, of the species living at any given time, exceedingly few will transmit offspring into a distant future. I shall return to this subject in the chapter on classification, but would add that from the point of view that exceedingly few of the extrahistorical species have passed on descendants, and from the point of view that all descendants of the same species form a class, we shall understand how it so happens that there are but few courses in each major department of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Even if very few of the oldest species have living and modified descendants today, in the most distant geologic time span the earth might just as well have been populated with many species of different genera, families, orders, and classes as it was at this time day. The utility of diversification in the inhabitants of the same region is in fact the same as that of the physiological division of labor in the organs of the same body - a subject explained so well by Milne Edwards. No physiologist doubts that an abdomen, since it is adapted to digest only vegetable matter or only meat, draws most of the nutrients from these substances. In the general financial system of a country, the more extensively and perfectly the animals and vegetation are diversified for different lifestyles, the more people can make a living there.

We therefore select those traits which, as far as we can judge, are least likely to have been altered relative to the living conditions to which each species has recently been exposed. According to this view, rudimentary structures are just as good or sometimes even better than other parts of the organization. We may err at points of structure in this respect, but when several characters, always so insignificant, occur together in a large group of beings with numerous habits, we can be almost certain, on the basis of the theory of descent, that these characters were derived from one inherited from a common ancestor. The principle that governs the general character of the fauna and flora of oceanic islands, namely that the inhabitants, if not identical, are nevertheless clearly related to the inhabitants of the region from which the colonists could easily have come: the settlers After them successively modified and better adapted to their new home, it is widespread throughout nature. So it is with the inhabitants of lakes and swamps, except that the great ease of transportation has given the whole world the same general forms.

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I have tried to point out that the life of each species depends more necessarily on the presence of various natural varieties already defined than on climate; and because the actually prevailing living conditions do not disappear quite imperceptibly, such as warmth or humidity. I have also attempted to show that intermediate varieties, which are fewer in number than the types they connect, are generally supplanted and exterminated in the course of further modification and improvement. However, the main reason that myriad intermediate compounds are not universally found in nature depends on the means of natural selection, by which new cultivars often take the positions of, and eradicate, their parent forms. But precisely to the extent that this means of destruction has had an effect on an infiniteHow to get rid of Delta 8 THCOn a scale, the variety of intermediate varieties that used to exist on earth should be really huge. The geology certainly does not reveal such a finely graded organic chain; and this is perhaps the most obvious and serious objection that can be raised against my theory. One could cite examples of the same diversity arising in life situations as varied as one can imagine; and, however, that different varieties arise from the same species under the same conditions. Such information indicates that they do not enter directly into the habitation zone of other species and usually acquire a diversity of the traits of those species to a very small extent. This is consistent with our view that species of all species are only well-marked and durable varieties.

With hermaphroditic organisms, which only occasionally interbreed, and likewise with animals, which mate at every birth but migrate little and can reproduce very quickly, a new, improved variety could quickly form and persist at any time in a body, so that crosses would be mainly between individuals of the same new variety. Due to the above principle, gardeners always prefer to obtain seeds from a large number of plants of the same variety, as this reduces the possibility of crossing with other varieties. Not that extreme variability is necessary, I believe; Just as man can certainly achieve great results merely by adding individual differences in a certain direction, so could nature, albeit much more easily, having an incomparably longer time at her disposal. Nor do I believe that a major physical change like climate change, or an unusual degree of isolation to curb immigration, is actually necessary to create new and uninhabited places to be replaced by natural selection through modification and enhancement of some of the different inhabitants can . For since all the inhabitants of each country fight together with well-balanced forces, even the slightest change in the structure or habits of one inhabitant would often give him an advantage over the others; and yet further modifications of the same type would often increase the advantage. No country can be named in which all the aborigines today are so perfectly adjusted to one another and to the physical conditions in which they live that none of them could be any better; for in all countries the natives were so much conquered by naturalized produce that they permitted strangers to take firm possession of the land.

Numerous surviving doubtful forms could be named, which are probably varieties; But who will claim that in future ages so many fossil compounds will be discovered that naturalists can decide, on the basis of common opinion, whether these dubious forms are varieties or not? As long as most connections between two species are unknown and a connection or intermediate species is discovered, it is simply classified as another distinct species. Only organic living beings of certain classes can survive in the fossil state, at least in large numbers. Broad-spectrum species vary more, and cultivars are often local to begin with, both of which are triggers that make the discovery of intermediates less likely.

In plants that are temporarily propagated by cuttings, buds, etc., crossing both different species and varieties is of immense importance; for the breeder here is not at all aware of the extreme variability of both hybrids and hybrids, and the frequent sterility of hybrids; but the cases of plants not propagated by seed are of little concern to us, as their duration is only temporary. Of all these drivers of change, I am convinced that the cumulative effect of selection, whether methodical and faster, both unconscious and slower but more effective, is by far the dominant force. If in any species we see any part or organ develop to a remarkable extent or in a remarkable manner, the reasonable presumption is that it is of great importance to that species; However, in this case, the part may well change. From the point of view that each species was created independently with all its parts as we see them now, I see no explanation.

Since in any fully settled country natural selection is bound to occur by the chosen form having some advantage over other forms in the struggle for life, there will be a constant tendency for the improved descendants of each species to supplant their ancestors at each stage and exterminate offspring and their original parents. For it should be noted that the competition is generally fiercest between the forms which are most closely related in habits, constitution, and structure. Hence all transitional forms between the earlier and later states, i. H. between the least and most improved states of a species, and the original parent species itself generally to extinction. So will probably be the case with many entire subsidiary lines of descent that will be conquered by later and improved lineages. However, if the altered offspring of a species migrate to another country or quickly adapt to an entirely new place where offspring and parents do not compete, both can continue to courtWhat to look for when choosing cannabidiol gummiesexist. On the whole, while I have no doubt that isolation is of significant importance for the emergence of new species, I am inclined to believe that the size of space is more important, particularly for the emergence of species that prove capable of long-to-live survive time and are widely distributed. In a large and open area there is not only a greater chance of favorable variations due to the large number of individuals of the same species living in it, but also that the living conditions are infinitely complex due to the large number of pre-existing species. and if some of these many kinds are changed and improved, others must be improved in proportion, lest they be exterminated.

One huge group will slowly conquer another huge group, reducing their numbers and thus reducing the likelihood of further variations and improvements. Within the same supergroup, the later and more extremely perfected subgroups, branching out and occupying many new locations within the natural system, will constantly tend to crowd out and destroy the earlier and less improved subgroups. In the long run, we can predict that the groups of natural creatures that are currently large and victorious and that are least fractured, that is, least affected by extinction so far, will increase over a long period of time. But nobody can predict which groups will prevail in the end; because we know full well that many teams that used to be the most advanced are now extinct.

As a well-known example, Pictet cites the general similarity of the organic remains of the different stages of Cretaceous formation, although the species are different at each stage. This fact alone, because of its generality, seems to have shaken Professor Pictet in his firm belief in the immutability of species. Those familiar with the distribution of existing species around the globe will not attempt to explain the close similarity of different species in closely spaced formations, since the physical conditions of the ancient areas have remained nearly the same. We remember that life forms, at least those that live in the sea, changed almost simultaneously around the world and therefore in the most diverse climates and conditions. Consider the tremendous climatic vicissitudes during the Pleistocene, which spans the entire Ice Age, and note how little the specific forms of marine life were affected. — The abrupt manner in which whole groups of species suddenly appear in definite formations has been pointed out by several paleontologists, for example Agassiz, Pictet, and none more vigorously than Professor Sedgwick, as a fatal objection to the belief in the transmutation of species . Indeed, if numerous species belonging to the same genus or family had arisen at once, this fact would be fatal to the theory of descent with slow modification by natural selection.

We have reason to believe that labored breathing in the upper regions would result in chest enlargement; and again correlation would come into play. Animals kept by wild people in different countries often have to struggle for subsistence and would be subject to some degree of natural selection, and individuals with slightly different constitutions would be better off in different climates; and there is reason to believe that build and color are related. In addition, one good observer states that in cattle, susceptibility to fly infestation is related to color and disposition to it[Potential] stuff in therebeing poisoned by some plants; so that the color would thus be subject to the effect of natural selection. For this purpose I could also have cited the differences between the human races, which are so marked; I would like to add that some light appears to be able to be shed on the origin of these differences, mainly through the sexual selection of a particular species, but without going into detail here my argument would seem frivolous.

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Nevertheless, the ablest naturalist, studying the species of both countries, could not have foreseen this result. The infertility of the first crosses between pure species whose reproductive system is perfect seems to depend on numerous circumstances; in some cases largely due to the premature death of the embryo. The sterility of hybrids whose reproductive system is imperfect, and in which that system and all of their organization have been disturbed by being composed of two different species, seems to be closely connected with the sterility which so frequently affects pure species when this is at their natural living conditions of the case has been disturbed. This opinion is supported by a parallel of a different kind, viz., that the crossing of only slightly numerous forms favors the vitality and fertility of their offspring; and that slight changes in the conditions of life appear to favor the vigor and fertility of all organic beings. Not surprisingly, the degree of difficulty in mating two species and the degree of sterility of their hybrid offspring generally agree, albeit for different reasons; for both depend on the degree of difference of some species between the crossed species.

This preservation of favorable variations and the rejection of harmful variations is what I call natural selection. Variations, neither beneficial nor harmful, would be unaffected by natural selection and remain a fluctuating element, as we might see in species called polymorphs. A high degree of variability is obviously favorable since the materials for the work can be freely selected; Not that mere individual differences, with the utmost care, aren't entirely sufficient to allow for the accumulation of large modifications in almost any direction desired.

Considering that each species was created independently, I see no explanation for this great fact in the classification of all organic beings; but to the best of my judgment it is explained by heredity and the complex action of natural selection which involves extinction and divergence of character, as we have seen illustrated in the figure. Generally, as already remarked, when we consider the hereditary varieties or races of our domesticated animals and plants, and compare them with closely allied species, we find less uniformity of character in each domesticated race than in the true species. Even the native races of the same species are often somewhat monstrous in character; By this I mean that although they differ in some insignificant respects from one another and from other species of the same genus, in some parts they often differ to an extreme degree, both in comparison with one another and especially in relation to all species in the nature they are closest to. With these exceptions (and with the perfect fertility of the varieties when crossed, a subject discussed below) the domesticated races of the same species differ from one another in the same way as they make up, in most cases only to a lesser degree, closely related ones Species of the same genus in a natural state. I think this must be admitted when we find that there are few domesticated breeds, either among animals or plants, which have not been classified by some competent judges as mere varieties, and by other competent judges as descendants of originally distinct species.

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For the evolution of a group of forms all descended from one ancestor must have been an exceedingly slow process; and the ancestors must have lived long centuries before their modified descendants. But we constantly overestimate the perfection of the geological record and erroneously conclude that certain genera or families did not exist before this stage because they have not been found below a certain stage. We keep forgetting how big the world is compared to the area over which our geological formations have been closely studied. We forget that groups of species may have long existed elsewhere and multiplied slowly before invading the ancient archipelagos of Europe and the United States. We do not give due consideration to the enormous time gaps that are likely to have elapsed between our successive formations, and in some cases perhaps longer than the time each formation takes to build. These intervals have allowed time for the propagation of species from one or more parent forms; and in later formation such species appear as if created suddenly. It may sound fanciful, but I suspect a similar parallel extends to a related but very different class of facts. It's an ancient and near-universal belief, based I believe on ample evidence, that small changes in living conditions are beneficial to all living things.

It is debatable at what stage of life the causes of variability, whatever they may be, generally operate; both during the initial or late development phase of the embryo and at the time of conception. The experiments of Geoffroy St. Hilaire show that the unnatural treatment of the embryo causes monstrosities; and monstrosities cannot be separated by a clear line of distinction from mere variations. However, I am strongly inclined to believe that the most common cause of variability is due to the male and female reproductive elements being affected prior to the act of conception.

Once a group is completely gone, it doesn't reappear; because the bond of generation is broken. The competition between the forms that are most similar in all respects will generally be fiercer, as explained and illustrated by examples. Therefore, the improved and modified offspring of a species generally lead to the extinction of the parent species; and when many new forms have evolved from a species, the closest allies of that species, i.e. H. the species of the same genus, are the most vulnerable to extinction. Thus, I believe, a certain number of new species descended from a species constituting a new genus give up an old genus belonging to the same family. But it must often have happened that a new species belonging to a group took the place occupied by a species belonging to a particular group, and so caused its extinction; and if the successful invader develops many allied forms, many will have to yield; and they are generally related forms that share an inherited inferiority. But no matter whether they are species belonging to the same class or a different class that take their placeFull Spectrum vs Broad Spectrum vs CBD IsolateIn other species that have been modified and improved, some of the sufferers can often persist for a long time because they have adapted to a particular way of life, or because they colonize a remote and isolated station where they have escaped stiff competition. For example, only one species of Trigonia, a large genus of bivalve molluscs, survives in Australian seas; and some members of the large and almost extinct group of ganoidfish still inhabit our freshwater waters.

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Therefore, given that there have undoubtedly been variations useful to humans, it can be considered unlikely that other variations will sometimes appear that are in some way useful to every living being in the great and complex battle of lifeSo you learn less and learn fasterover thousands of generations? If this happens, can we then doubt that individuals who have even the slightest advantage over others have the best chance of survival and reproduction of their kind?

• The effects of sexual selection, when manifested in beauty to attract women, can only be called beneficial in a more contrived sense.
• However, these two families were less distinct from each other than they were before fossils were discovered.
• Certainly an intermediate breed between two very different breeds could not be obtained without extreme care and long-continued selection; Nor can I find a single case of registration of a permanent race thus formed.
• For example, only one species of Trigonia, a large genus of bivalve molluscs, survives in Australian seas; and some members of the large and almost extinct group of ganoidfish still inhabit our freshwater waters.
• It would be useful to explain in a little more detail, with an example, what I mean by sterility, which in relation to other differences is accidental and not a particularly gifted trait.

So, as we have seen, the complete extinction of a group is generally a slower process than its formation. In this chapter we have discussed some of the difficulties and objections that can be raised against my theory. Many of them are very serious; but I think the discussion brought to light several facts which are quite obscure according to the theory of independent acts of creation. We have seen that species are at no time infinitely variable, and are not related by a multitude of intermediate gradations, partly because the process of natural selection will always be very slow, acting on only a very few forms at any one time; and partly because the very process of natural selection involves an almost continuous displacement and extinction of the antecedent and intermediate gradations. Closely related species living today in a continuous space must often have evolved when space was discontinuous and living conditions did not diverge imperceptibly from one part to the other. I have sometimes spoken as if the variations so frequent and varied in organic beings in the domesticated state, and to a lesser extent in those in the natural state, were due to chance.

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It must be admitted that many forms which are regarded as varieties by highly qualified judges have so perfectly the character of species that they are classed as good and true species by other highly competent judges. But debating whether they are actually called species or varieties before a definition of these terms has been generally accepted is futile.

• In addition, natural selection leads to a divergence of character; For the more living beings that subsist in the same area, the more they differ in structure, habits, and constitution, evidence of which we find when we look at the inhabitants of a small locality or at naturalized produce.
• The physical conditions likely had a small impact on the structure, regardless of the benefits derived from it.
• It is the same principle which I believe explains the common species in each country, as shown in the second chapter, having on average a greater number of well-marked varieties than the rarer species.
• It does not follow, however, that the structure of every squirrel is the best imaginable under any natural condition.

Who can believe that animals such as the Italian Greyhound, Bloodhound, Bulldog or Blenheim Spaniel, etc., so different from all wild Canidae, ever existed freely in a natural state? It has often been vaguely said that all of our dog breeds were created by crossing some Aboriginal species; but by crossing we can only obtain forms which to some extent lie between their parents; and in explaining our numerous domestic breeds by this procedure, we must admit the former existence in the wild of the more extreme forms, such as the Italian greyhound, hound, bulldog, etc.

The diversity of the inhabitants of many regions can be attributed to changes through natural selection and is to some extent entirely under the direct influence of various physical conditions. The degree of dissimilarity will depend on whether the migration of the dominant forms of life from one region to another occurred more or less easily, at more or less distant times; — type and number of former immigrants; – and to their actions and reactions, in their common struggle for life; - The relationship between organism and organism is, as I have often observed, the most important of all relationships. Thus, the great importance of barriers in migration control comes into play; and time for the slow process of modification through natural selection.

But since variations apparently useful or pleasing to man occur only occasionally, the preservation of large numbers of individuals greatly increases the probability of their occurrence; and therefore this is paramount to success. Following this principle, Marshall observed with regard to sheep from parts of Yorkshire that 'they can never be improved as they are generally owned by poor people and tended to be kept in small lots'. On the other hand, by growing large stocks of the same plants, gardeners are generally much more successful than amateurs in obtaining new and valuable varieties. Breeding large numbers of individuals of a species in a country requires that the species be maintained in favorable living conditions so that it can reproduce freely in that country. In general, when individuals of a species are scarce, all individuals, regardless of quality, are allowed to reproduce and this effectively prevents selection.

We see in these facts a deep organic bond ruling spatially and temporally over the same areas of land and water and independent of their physical conditions. Given the common notion that each species was created independently, why should certain characters, or those in which species of the same genus differ from one another, be more variable than generic characters in which they all agree? Why, advertisingDoes it matter where you buy CBD oil?For example, is the color of a flower in one species in a genus more likely to vary when the other species, which is said to have arisen independently, has flowers of a different color than when all species in the genus have the same flowers variegated?

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We see Britain separated from Europe by a shallow canal, and the mammals are the same on either side; We meet similar facts on many islands separated from Australia by similar channels. The West Indies lie on a deeply flooded shore, nearly a thousand fathoms deep, and here we find American forms, but the species and even the genera are distinct.

And if there was any variability in nature, it would be inexplicable if natural selection hadn't come into play. It has often been asserted that the range of variation in nature is of a strictly limited extent, but this assertion is utterly unfit to prove. Although man acts only on external characters, and this is often capricious, he can achieve a great result in a short time by adding mere individual differences in his own charactersCBD oil how to take itdomestic productions; and everyone agrees that there are at least individual species differences in nature. In addition to these differences, however, all naturalists have admitted the existence of varieties which they consider sufficiently distinct to be listed in systematic works. No one can clearly distinguish between individual differences and minor deviations; or between more distinct varieties and subspecies and species.

Slowly and at successive intervals new species have entered the scene; and the extent of the change is very different in the different groups after equal time intervals. The extinction of species and whole groups of species, which has played such a prominent role in the history of the organic world, follows almost inevitably the principle of natural selection; for the old forms are replaced by new and improved forms. Neither individual species nor groups of species reappear once the chain of ordinary generation has been broken. The progressive spread of the dominant forms with the slow modification of their descendants makes the life forms appear after long periods of time to have changed simultaneously around the world. That the fossil remains of each formation lies to some extent between the fossils in the formations above and below is explained simply by their intermediate position in the chain of descent. The great fact that all extinct organic creatures belong to the same system as newer creatures and fall into the same or intermediate groups stems from the living and extinct beings being the descendants of common parents.

I'm inclined to think that natural selection, working for the good of every living thing and benefiting from analogous variation, has generally changed in much the same way that two people have sometimes independently come up with the exact same invention—two elements in two organic beings that often owe little of their structure to inheritance from the identical ancestor. I believe that living conditions, through their effect on the reproductive system, are so fundamental that they cause variability. I do not believe that variability is an inherent and necessary contingency in all circumstances and in all organic beings, as some authors have suggested. The variability obeys many unknown laws, most notably that of growth correlation. In some cases I have no doubt that crossing originally different species played an important role in the origin of our domestic production. When several vaults were set up in some countriesCBD and Medications: Dos and Don'tsIn native breeds, their occasional crossing by selection has undoubtedly contributed greatly to the formation of new sub-breeds; but I believe that the importance of crossing varieties has been greatly exaggerated, both in animals and in plants propagated by seed.

If the country were open to its borders, new forms would certainly immigrate, and this too would seriously disrupt the relationships of some of the former residents. But in the case of an island, or a country partly surrounded by barriers, into which new and more suitable forms could not enter freely, we would have places in natural economy which would certainly be better filled if some of the original inhabitants were somewhat altered; for if space had been opened to immigration, the same places would have been occupied by invaders. In this case, any slight change that has taken place over the centuries that in some way favored individuals of each species and made them better adapted to their changed conditions would tend to persist; and natural selection would thus have room for improvement work.

As has just been observed, natural selection leads to differences in character and, in large part, to the extinction of the least-improved and mediocre life-forms. The various subgroups in each class cannot be classified in one file, but rather appear to be grouped around points, and these in turn around advertisementsE-Mail-Scraperother points etc. in almost infinite cycles.

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This natural disposition is represented in the diagram as far as it is possible on paper, but too simply. If no branching diagram had been used and only the names of the groups had been written in a linear series, it would have been even less possible to give a natural arrangement; and, as is well known, it is not possible to serialize on a flat surface the affinities which we discover in nature between beings of the same group. So, in my view, the natural system is genealogical in arrangement, like a family tree; but the degree of change which the various groups have undergone must be expressed by dividing them into various so-called genera, subfamilies, families, sections, orders, and classes.

Widespread, individual-rich species that have already triumphed over many competitors in their own extensive families have the best chance of conquering new places when they spread to new countries. In their new home they will be exposed to new conditions and will often experience further changes and improvements; and so they will become even more victorious and produce altered groups of offspring. Using this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand why parts of genera, entire genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so common and known to be the case. This magnificent fact of the parallel succession of life forms in the world is explained by the theory of natural selection. New species arise from the emergence of new varieties which have some advantage over the older forms; and those forms which are already predominant, or have some advantage over the other forms in their own country, would of course give way more frequently to new varieties or incipient species; for the latter must be even more victorious in order to be preserved and survive. We have clear evidence in this regard for plants that are dominant, i.e.

The foregoing remarks lead me to say a few words about the recent protest by some naturalists against the utilitarian doctrine that every detail of the structure was created for the benefit of its owner. They believe that a great many structures were created for beauty in human eyes or for simple variety. The physical conditions likely had a small impact on the structure, regardless of the benefits derived from it. growth correlation has withoutCBD and Gut Health: Is There a Connection?Doubts played a very important role, and a meaningful change in one part has often entailed multiple changes that had no direct benefit for other parts. Thus, through the Law of Return, traits that were formerly useful, or that formerly arose from a correlation of growth, or from some other unknown cause, can still reappear, although they are not now of direct use. The effects of sexual selection, when manifested in beauty to attract women, can only be called beneficial in a more contrived sense.

In addition, each new form, once greatly improved, will be able to expand in open and continuous space, thus competing with many others. So more new places will emerge and the competition to occupy them will be tougher, and in a large area rather than a small and isolated area. In addition, due to level fluctuations, large areas, although now contiguous, were often in a devastated state, so the good effects of isolation in general will help to some extent. Compare the different plant species of Britain, France, or the United States, worked out by different botanists, and see how surprisingly many forms have been classified as good species by one botanist and mere varieties by another. H. C. Watson, to whom I am deeply indebted for his help of any kind, has marked me 182 British plants, which are generally regarded as varieties, but which have all been classed as species by botanists; and in making this list he has omitted many unimportant varieties which have nevertheless been classified as species by some botanists, and he has omitted altogether several highly polymorphic genera. Among the genera, including the more polymorphic forms, Mr. Babington gives 251 species, while Mr. Bentham gives only 112 - a difference of 139 dubious forms! Among animals which unite at each birth and are very active, doubtful forms, classified as a species by one zoologist and a variety by another, are seldom found in the same country but are common in different areas.

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However, if the electric organs had been inherited from a historical ancestor, we would have expected that all electric fish would have been related in a special way. Also the geology does not in any way lead to the assumption that formerly most fish had electrical organs, which most of their modified descendants have lost. A parallel problem is the presence of luminous organs in a number of beetles belonging to entirely different families and orders. Other circumstances could beCBD oil 10 how to take itare given; In vegetation, for example, the very curious invention of a mass of pollen grains borne on a peduncle with a sticky gland at the end is similar in Orchis and Asclepias—genera practically as distant as is possible in flowering crops . In all these cases of two very different species apparently endowed with the same anomalous organ, it should be noted that although the general appearance and function of the organ may be the same, a fundamental difference can generally be noted.

• I believe that non-use was the main trigger; which, in successive generations, led to the gradual diminution of various organs until they became rudimentary—as in the case of the eyes of animals living in dark caves and the wings of birds that live on oceanic islands and were seldom forced to fly in the end lost her ability to fly.
• Therefore, every detail of structure in any living thing, either directly or indirectly through the complex laws of growth, may be considered of particular use to an ancestral form or now of particular use to the descendants of that form.
• I don't believe in a fixed law of development that will result in all the inhabitants of a country changing suddenly, simultaneously, or equally.
• It is a very general rule that the inhabitants of each zone are related to the inhabitants of the nearest source from which the immigrants might have come.

On this idea, that the pure system, so far as it has been perfected, is genealogical in its connection, with the degrees of distinction between the descendants of a common father or mother, expressed by the terms genera, households, orders, etc., we are in the Able to understand the rules that we must follow in our classification. We can understand why we value certain similarities more than others; why we are allowed to use rudimentary and useless organs or others of insignificant physiological importance; When comparing a group to a specific group, why do we fundamentally reject analogous or adaptive characters and use the same characters within the boundaries of the identical group? We can plainly see how it comes about that all forms, living and extinct, can be summed up in a single beautiful system; and how the various members of each class are bound together by the most intricate and radiant lines of kinship. We shall, in all probability, never unravel the inextricable web of kinship between the members of any class; but if we have a definite goal in mind and not an unknown plan of creation, we can hope to verify progress, however gradual. In the headquarters on the geological succession, I planned to do most of the rare things, because the group is basically very different from the characters during the last change process, because the shape of their life is mainly at the presence of characters able, to live between the existing groups. Although former and middle supervisors occasionally had to say goodbye because I couldn't change them, we thought that our common groups were confusing or deviant. Because it is an aberrant form, the number of quorum members must increase after my theory is finished and finally declared forever.

He can do this methodically, or he can do it unconsciously, keeping the individuals who are most useful to him at the moment, without thinking about changing the race. It is certain that it can largely influence the character of a breed, selecting in each succeeding generation individual differences so slight as to be scarcely perceptible to the untrained eye. This selection process was the key factor in creating the most distinctive and useful domestic breeds. That many of the races produced by man have largely the character of natural species is shown by the inextricable doubts as to whether very many of them are native varieties or species. The reader will understand better what is meant if he takes the trouble to refer to the diagram in Chapter Four.

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We can therefore understand the great importance of the barriers, whether land or water, that separate our many zoological and botanical provinces. In this way we can understand the location of subgenres, genres and families; and how is it that in different latitudes, for example in South America, the inhabitants of plains and mountains, of forests, swamps and deserts are so mysteriously related by kinship and equally related to the extinct beings? who once inhabited the same continent. In addition to the absence of land mammals related to the islands' distance from the continents, there is also a partially distance-independent relationship between the depth of the sea separating an island from the nearby mainland and the depth of the sea separating an island from the nearby one Mainland separates occurrences of the same mammalian species or related species in more or less altered states in both. Mr. Windsor Earl has on this point made some impressive observations concerning the great Malayan archipelago, which is traversed by a space of deep ocean near Celebes; and this space separates two very distinct mammalian faunas. On either side, the islands lie on moderately deep underwater shores and are inhabited by closely related or identical quadrupeds. Undoubtedly there are some anomalies in this large archipelago and in some cases it is very difficult to judge because of the probable human naturalization of some mammals. But the admirable zeal and researches of Mr. Wallace will soon bring us much light on the natural history of this archipelago. In all other parts of the world I haven't had time to deal with this topic; But as far as I know, the relationship is generally good.

• According to the principle of the persistent tendency toward divergence of character illustrated earlier in this diagram, the newer a form is, the more generally it differs from its ancient progenitor.
• The reader will understand better what is meant if he takes the trouble to refer to the diagram in Chapter Four.
• But in a certain sense, according to my theory, the newer forms must be superior to the older ones; for each new species arises from having had some advantage in the struggle for life over the other and earlier forms.

It cannot be denied that we are not yet very aware of the full extent of the various climatic and geographic changes that have affected the earth in modern times; and such modifications will clearly have made the migration much easier. As an example, I even tried to show how strong the influence of the ice age was on the distribution of the same and other species around the world. With regard to different species of the identical genus inhabiting very distant and isolated regions, since the process of change has inevitably been sluggish, all avenues of migration may have been available over a very long period of time; and consequently the difficulty of wide distribution of species of the same genus is reduced to some extent. Finally, we have now seen that sheer choice resulting from the struggle for existence, leading almost inevitably to extinction and divergence of character within the many offspring of a dominant parent species, explains this great and common trait in the kindreds of all natural beings , especially their subordination into a group under a group. We use the element of ancestry to assign individuals of all sexes and ages to a species, although they share few common characteristics; We use lineage to classify recognized varieties even if they differ from their mother or father. and I regard this element of descent as the hidden bond of connection which naturalists have sought under the concept of the natural system.

Based on this same principle of ancient migration, in most cases associated with modifications, we can use the ice age to understand the identity of some plants and the close association of many others on the more distant mountains below the most diverse climates; and also the close association of some sea creatures in the northern and southern temperate zones, though separated by the whole of the innertropical ocean. Closely related to the claim that the organic remains of an intermediate formation have some degree of intermediate character is the fact, stressed by all paleontologists, that the fossils of two successive formations are much more closely related than the fossils are the fossils of two distant formations.

But a part may develop in the most unusual way, like the wing of a bat, and yet be no more variable than any other structure, if the part is common to many subordinate forms, that is, if it has been inherited over a very large number of years ; for in that case it will have been made constant by long-lasting natural selection. As far as geographic distribution is concerned, the difficulties encountered with the theory of descent with modification are quite serious. All individuals of the same species, and all species of the same genus or even higher group, should descend from common parents; and therefore they need it, no matter how remote and isolated the parts of the world where they are now foundcommandpassed from one part to another in the midst of successive generations. However, as we have reason to believe that some species have retained the identical specific form for very long periods of time, enormously long in terms of years, no undue value should be attached to the occasional wide distribution of the same species; for over very long periods of time there will always be a great opportunity for widespread migration in many ways. A damaged or disrupted area could typically be due to the extinction of species in the intermediate regions.

This is of course a completely wrong expression, but it serves to clearly acknowledge that we do not know the cause of a particular variation. Some authors believe that the function of the reproductive system is both to produce individual differences or very slight structural variations, and to make the child resemble its parents. But the much greater variability and frequency of monstrosities under domestication or cultivation than under nature leads me to believe that the variations in structure are in some way due to the nature of the living conditions under which the parents and children, their most distant ancestors, became exposed over several generations. I stated in the first chapter - but it would take a long list of facts, which cannot be given here, to prove the truth of the observation - that the reproductive system is extremely vulnerable to changes in living conditions; and that this system is functionally disturbed in the parents I attribute chiefly to the mutable or plastic state of the offspring. The male and female sex elements seem to be touched before the union takes place, which is the formation of a new being. In "sport" plants only the shoot is affected, which in the first stage does not differ significantly from an ovule.

It is generally assumed, perhaps because of monstrosities that often invade the embryo at a very early stage, that minor deviations are bound to appear at just as early a stage. But we have little evidence for this, in fact the results tend to point in the other direction; Because it is well known that breeders of cattle, horses and various fictional animals can say with certainty what virtues or form it will ultimately have only some time after the birth of the animal. We see it clearly in our children; We cannot always say whether the child will be big or small and what exact characteristics it will have. The question is not in what period of life a change was evoked, but in what period of time it is fully visualized.

Since, by the idea of ​​pure selection, there must have existed an infinite number of intermediate varieties connecting all the species in each group by gradations as beautiful as our current varieties, one might ask: Why don't we see these forms of connection everywhere? us? Regarding existing types, we should always keep in mind that we cannot find direct connections between them, only between each individual extinct and displaced type. Even over a wide area that has been uninterrupted for a long period of time and in which the local weather and other living conditions change imperceptibly when passing from one area inhabited by one species to another inhabited by a closely related species, can we expect nothing good, usually looking for intermediate varieties in the intermediate zone. For we intend to imagine that only a few species change at each time interval; and all changes are made slowly. I have also shown that the intermediate varieties, which in all probability exist first in the intermediate zones, might possibly be displaced by the related types on either side; and the latter, being more numerous, are usually more readily modified and improved than the intermediate varieties, which are fewer; so that the intermediate varieties are pushed out and eradicated in the long run. The electrical organs present another and much more serious difficulty; for they occur in only a few dozen fish, some of which are far removed from their kin. In general, when the same organ occurs in several members of the same class, especially in members with very different living habits, we can attribute the presence to inheritance through a typical ancestor. and its absence for some members, to the point of its being lost through disuse or mere choice.

In Chapter Six I have enumerated the principal objections which might legitimately be raised against the views expressed in this volume. Firstly, in particular, the distinctness of certain varieties and their non-interbreeding through myriad transitional compounds is a really obvious problem. I have given the reason why such hyperlinks are not common at this time under the circumstances which seem most favorable to their presence, namely, in a deep and stable space with graded physical conditions.

• However, they do not claim to be able to define or even guess which life forms were created and which were brought about by secondary laws.
• Or again, when the horns of crossbreed cattle were influenced by the shape of the horns of both parents.
• It must be admitted that many forms which are considered varieties by highly qualified judges have so perfectly the character of species that they are classed as good and true species by other highly competent judges.
• We may err on this point at points of structure, but when several characters, always so insignificant, appear together in a large group of beings with different habits, we can be almost certain, on the basis of the theory of descent, that these characters were derived from one inherited from a common ancestor.

We can therefore understand why nature gradually endows different animals of the same class with their different instincts. I have tried to show how much light the principle of gradation sheds on the marvelous architectural powers of the bee in the hive.

The cause could, and I think in general, have been at work before the formation of the embryo; and the variation may be due to the fact that the male and female sexual elements were influenced by the conditions faced by a parent or their ancestors. However, an effect produced at a very early stage, before the formation of the embryo, can manifest itself later in life; This is the case, for example, when a hereditary disease that only manifests itself in old age is transmitted to the offspring through the reproductive component of a parent. Or again, when the horns of crossbreed cattle were influenced by the shape of the horns of both parents. It must be quite immaterial to the welfare of a very young animal, while it remains in the womb or in the egg, or while it is nurtured and protected by its parents, whether most of its characteristics are fully acquired some time before or some time afterwards in life. It wouldn't mean advertisingshop hereFor example, for a bird that feeds best when it has a long beak, whether or not it has adopted a beak of that particular length, as long as it has been fed by its parents. From this I conclude that it is quite possible that each of the many successive modifications by which each species has obtained its present structure might have occurred at a not very early period in life; and some direct evidence from our domestic animals supports this view.

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The classification rules undoubtedly become easier when we have a specific object in mind. We have no family trees or coats of arms; and we must discover and trace the many different lines of descent in our natural genealogies, emanating from characters of all kinds long inherited. Species and groups of species that are labeled as aberrant, which can be imaginatively labeled as living fossils, will help us form a picture of ancient life forms. We profoundly ignore the triggers that produce minor and irrelevant deviations; and we notice that immediatelyIs CBD the Hottest Men's Grooming Trend of 2021?This report looks at the differences in the breeds of our pets in different countries, especially in less civilized countries where artificial selection is scarce. Observant observers are convinced that a humid climate influences hair growth and that horns are related to hair. Mountain breeds are always distinct from lowland breeds; and a mountainous country would probably injure the hind legs to exercise them more, and perhaps the shape of the pelvis as well; and hence, by the law of homologous variation, the forelimbs and also the head would probably be affected.

No doubt habit sometimes plays a role in changing instincts; but it is certainly not indispensable, as we see, in the case of neutral insects which leave no offspring, to inherit the effects of a long-continued habit. From the view that all species of the same genus are descended from a common parent, and have inherited much in common, we can understand how it can happen that related species, when placed under significantly different living conditions, nevertheless follow nearly the same instincts; for the thrush of South America, for example, lines its nest with mud like our British species. From the perspective of instincts that were slowly acquired through natural selection, it is no wonder that some instincts are seemingly imperfect and prone to error, and that many instincts make other animals suffer. We have very many instances of vestigial organs in our domestic animals, such as the tail stump in the tailless breeds, the remains of an ear in the earless breeds, and the reappearance of tiny hanging horns in the polled cattle breeds, particularly after Youatt, in young stock and the Condition of the whole flower of cauliflower.

A third great fact, contained in part in the foregoing statements, is the affinity of the products of the same continent or sea, though the species themselves are distinguished at different points and stations. Nonetheless, the naturalist traveling, say, from north to south will never cease to be struck by the manner in which successive groups of specifically different but clearly related beings replace one another.

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But considering that groups of species descended from other species and were modified by natural selection, I think we can shed some light on this. In our domesticated animals, if part or all of the animal is neglected and no selection is made, that part or all of the breed will no longer have a nearly uniform character. In rudimentary organs and those little specialized for any particular purpose, and perhaps in polymorphic groups, we see an almost parallel natural case; for in such cases natural selection either does not or cannot fully operate, and the organization is left in a vacillating state. But what particularly interests us here is the fact that in our domesticated animals, those sites which are currently undergoing rapid change through continuous selection are also subject to a high degree of variation.

Several reasons lead me to believe this; But the most important reason is the remarkable effect that captivity or cultivation has on the functions of the reproductive system. This system seems far more vulnerable than any other part of the organization to the effects of any change in living conditions. Nothing is easier than taming an animal, and few things are more difficult than allowing it to reproduce freely in captivity, even in the many cases where males and females mate.ProductsHow many animals there are that do not reproduce, although they live for a long time in not too close confinement in their native land! This is generally attributed to faulty instincts; but how many cultivated plants show the greatest vigour, and yet seldom or never sow! In some of these cases, it has been found that very small changes, such as slightly more or less water in a given growing season, determine whether or not the plant lays a seed.

They admit that a multitude of forms which they themselves until recently considered special creations, and which are still so regarded by most naturalists, and which consequently have all the outward characters of the true kind, admit that they arose from variation , but refuse to extend the same vision to other, slightly different forms. However, they do not claim to be able to define or even guess which life forms were created and which were brought about by secondary laws. In one case they admit that variation has a reason, in another they arbitrarily reject it, making no difference in the two cases. But do they really believe that in untold periods of Earth's history, some elementary atoms were suddenly ordered to flash into living tissue? Were all infinitely numerous animal and plant species created as eggs or seeds or as adults? Although naturalists rightly demand a full explanation of all the difficulties from those who believe in the mutability of species, they themselves ignore the whole issue of the first appearance of species in what they consider to be an awe-inspiring silence.

However, as long as the selection progresses rapidly, one can always expect that the structure that is changed will be very different. It is also worth noting that these variable characters, induced by human selection, sometimes bind to one sex rather than the other, generally the male sex, as in the carrier braid and the Increased a lot of pout. We have seen that it is the common, widespread, and widespread species that belong to the larger genera and that vary most; and these will tend to pass on to their changed offspring the superiority which now makes them dominant in their own lands.

But perhaps the most important point of all is that the animal or plant should be so useful to, or so valued by, man that even the slightest variation in the characteristics or structure of each individual animal should be given the greatest attention. I saw how it was seriously observed, which was very fortunate that the strawberry began to diversify just at the time when gardeners began to take intensive care of this plant.

But I doubt that any of these cases elucidate the origin of rudimentary organs in the state of nature, apart from showing that rudiments can be produced; for I doubt that species in nature ever undergo abrupt change. I believe that non-use was the main trigger; which, in successive generations, led to the gradual diminution of various organs until they became rudimentary—as in the case of the eyes of animals living in dark caves and the wings of birds that live on oceanic islands and were seldom forced to fly in the end lost her ability to fly. Again, an organ useful under certain conditions may become injurious under others, such as the wings of cockroaches that live on small, exposed islands; and in this case natural selection would slowly further reduce the organ until it was rendered harmless and rudimentary. Now let us apply these facts and the two principles above—that the latter cannot be proved to be true, but to some extent probable—to species in a state of nature. Consider a genus of birds which I theorize descended from a parent species and whose numerous new species have been modified by natural selection according to their various habits. Owing to the many successive slight steps of variation occurring fairly late in life and inherited at a corresponding age, the young of the new species of our putative genus will obviously tend to resemble each other much more than the adults. just as we have seen in the case of pigeons.

But the far more important consideration is that most of a living thing's organization is simply due to heredity; and while every living thing is certainly well adapted to its place in nature, many structures today bear no direct relation to the habits of each species. Hence we cannot believe that the webbed feet of the mountain goose or the frigatebird are of any particular service to these birds; We cannot believe that the same bones in the monkey's arm, the horse's foreleg, the bat's wing, and the seal's fin are of particular use to these animals. But for the ancestor of the mountain goose and the frigate bird, webbed webs were no doubt as useful as they are for most aquatic birds today. From this we can conclude that these different bones may have been acquired through natural selection and were subject to the numerous laws of heredity, reversal, growth correlation, etc., then as now. Therefore, every detail of structure in any living thing, either directly or indirectly through the complex laws of growth, may be considered of particular use to an ancestral form or now of particular use to the descendants of that form. I don't believe in a fixed law of development that will result in all the inhabitants of a country changing suddenly, simultaneously, or equally.

We cannot doubt that every structure is useful to every species of squirrel in its own country, by enabling them to escape from birds or predators, or to gather food more quickly, or, as there is reason to believe, by reducing the danger decreased from occasional falls. It does not follow, however, that the structure of every squirrel is the best imaginable under any natural condition. Whether the climate and vegetation change, whether other competing rodents or new prey immigrate, or old ones change, and any analogy would lead us to believe that at least some of the squirrels would decline in number or become extinct if they did not become them too accordingly modified and improved in structure. Therefore, especially under changing living conditions, I see no difficulty in continuing to obtain individuals with increasingly full lateral membranes, each modification being useful and propagating until, by the accumulated effects of this process of natural selection, a perfect so-called flying squirrel. In fact, as already observed, any form that exists in smaller numbers would have a greater chance of being eradicated than a form that exists in large numbers; and in this particular case the intermediate form would be highly subject to intrusion by closely related forms existing on either side of it.

We see how this affects farmers and gardeners when they frequently exchange seeds, tubers, etc. from one soil or climate to another and vice versa. As animals recover, we can clearly see that almost any change in lifestyle has major benefits. Again, there is ample evidence, both in plants and animals, that a cross between very different individuals of the same species, that is, between members of different strains or sub-breeds, confers vigor and fertility on the offspring. In fact, from the facts adduced in our fourth chapter, I believe that some degree of interbreeding is essential even in hermaphrodites; and that close admixture between the next of kin over several generations, especially when kept under the same conditions of life, always leads to weakness and sterility in the offspring. In this chapter I have briefly attempted to show that the mental qualities of our pets vary, and that these variations are inherited. I see no difficulty, therefore, in natural selection accumulating, under changing conditions of life, slight modifications of instinct to any extent and in any useful direction.

I think it was used so unconsciously; and only in this way can I understand the numerous rules and information that our best systematology has followed. We don't have written family trees; we must distinguish the lineage community by similarities of any kind.